Method of breeding season in the field

This method of breeding involves assembling a group or all females in the herd with one or more males in a suitable grazing land. The receptive females choose males and all females are gradually being served.

It has the advantage of not requiring individual management of each male and female for mating. But it is not possible to record the time that each female is mounted, is mounted or how many times unless you're watching the flock all the time.

It is a method commonly used in the breeding of cattle and sheep. However, its application to alpacas and llamas requires modifications to suit the characteristics and reproductive behavior of these camelids.

Behavior

In field conditions mating to males and females have the opportunity to interact more naturally than in the breeding season individually. Males have a chance to explore and choose females in more responsive, with less incidence of submissive females forced to ride but not responsive.

By introducing the males, they should not be excessive. The lack of females to keep them busy induces fights, and can result in serious injury variable. For example, a male mounting is particularly vulnerable to attack by other male.

When males are introduced to a group of non-pregnant females who have been separated from them without having received any stimulus that can cause ovulation, there is immediately an intense sexual activity. This is especially marked during the first week, it is estimated that over 70 percent of females received at least one service. Thereafter, the males show a marked decline in sexual activity, despite the presence of receptive females in the herd. This decrease in sexual interest in females continuously exposed to males has led to the design of management strategies that involve an alternate use of males during mating.

The alternate use of males in the breeding season to field it seeks to combat sexual disinterest occurs continuously exposed to males to females. The temporary separation of the sexes has the effect of reviving sexual interest in males. It also has the effect of interfering with dominance relationships can be established between the males and can result in reduced or absent activity of some of these. The alternate use of males can be implemented in the following ways:

- Weekly rotation males: Let the herd consists of approximately 100 females and are used in all six males. This method first introduced three of the males remain with females for a week. At the end of the week are removed males who were working (go to rest), then add the other three. The operation is repeated at the end of the second week, and so on as long as the mating (about 60 days). It has been observed that with the rotation - weekly males can achieve a higher birth rate of 20 per cent of which would occur if the male female remain with all the time (for example, go from a 60 to 80 percent).

- Successive stages of work and rest three days each: In this case all the males are used for three days, after which they were removed and allowed to rest for three days. Continue in this manner throughout the period of breeding. It has been observed that using about three percent of males this method can give results similar to mating with weekly rotation of males.

- Two periods of 25 days of mating separated by 10 days off: The breeding season begins with a five per cent of males and runs for 25 days. Interrupted for 10 days, during which the males are separated from females and rest. After the break, the mating continues for another 25 days. This method requires less labor than the previous two because the animals are handled less frequently. However, it is more likely to become females without receiving the male attention because these periods of consistent with the females are longer, which increases

given the risks of sexual disinterest development and social problems among

males.

Conclution
The breeding season to field allows synchronization of lambing with considered favorable climatic conditions as well as the cycle pastures. This method is more difficult to maintain individual records assembled and detailed tracking of reproductive behavior each female during mating. The alternate use of the males prevents
problems of sexual disinterest and dominance relationships among males, allowing to obtain good rates of birth.

Method of breeding - tied

This is a traditional method used by breeders of alpacas and llamas of the Andean regions. Is a form of breeding season, since the female contact with the male only during the time chosen.

In this method the female is tied with a rope to force her to remain seated and so it can be easily mounted by the male. They tied the hind legs, passing the rope over the back of the female, which is immobilized in a position to intercourse.

As the female is tied at the disposal of the male must take special care to assess their behavior and ensure that it is receptive the male. If the female is pregnant intercourse can result in abortion. 

Each service receives a receptive female by the male. After being served, the female is exposed to male again two weeks later. The rejection or acceptance in this instance will be an indication of whether or not the female conceived. If you accept, is allowed to receive other services. Exposure of females to males every two weeks should continue for the duration of the breeding season in order to become pregnant than those who have not conceived or having undergone embryonic loss. 

The females served by the male, it is advisable to repeat the service for two or three days. This practice can be counterproductive. 

Conclusions 

- This method is often practiced as part of traditional customs of the farmers in the region. Done with the necessary care and led by a person with experience in handling and behavior of alpacas and llamas, may be expected to result in birth rates from 70 to 85% 

- Provide for a large labor force (usually not less than 5 people), although this may not necessarily be seen as a drawback if the human resources available.

PAEASITIC DISEASES, part 2

3 HIDATIDOSIS
It is produced by the cystic stages of Echinococcus granulosus tapeworm of
seencuentra whose adult form in the small intestine of dogs and wild carnivores. The cysts usually selocalizan in the liver and lungs resulting in the seizure of such bodies and the resulting economic losses. From the standpoint of public health has tambiénimportancia because it is a zoonosis that has a relatively high incidence in areas of breeding camels. Disease control, as in the case of sarcocistiosis, is to prevent the dogs consume viscera cysts and their periodic dosing against Echinococcus.

4 FLUKE
It is caused by the parasite Fasciola hepatic bile ducts of the liver. His cicloevolutivo involves the participation of an intermediate host, a snail of the genus Limnea, which inhabits the wetlands and marshes. In the highlands of the Puna, the incidence dedistomatosis in alpacas and llamas appears to be low, which is attributed to climáticasno conditions would be suitable for the development of the snail. However when sontrasladados animals to lower elevations, where usually there are many shells, heavy infestations can occur producing sharp pictures and high mortality. This happened with alpacasque were transferred from the Department of Puno, Cajamarca, in the early stages of repopulation delPrograma Alpacas, referred to above.

5 DISEASES CAUSED by ectoparasites
In this group the most important disease is scabies, by affecting the growth of the fiber and sucalidad, besides causing growth retardation and alteration of other productive functions. The condition is caused by the presence and multiplication of ectoparasitic mites known to nombrede. We found two species of them in alpacas, llamas and vicunas: Sarcoptes and Psoroptes scabieivar aucheniae aucheniae.

The prevalence of the disease varies depending on the technological level of exploitation and. laépoca of the year. It is higher level of small producers in the condition may be massive, the spring-summer, are most conducive to the presentation of the disease. Sucontrol is relatively simple as long as they do so oportuna.Hoy treatment in days, with the development of systemic drugs for parenteral administration, the treatment and control of ectoparasites is much simpler. However, the problem faced by small producers is the lack of resources for the purchase of medicines and, often, inadequate use of them for lack of access to technical assistance.

The Piojera is another disease caused by parasites of the genus and Damalinia.Son Microthoracius suctopicadores or chewing pests that feed on blood in the first case and delas desquamated epithelial cells in the second, causing itching which causes animals to rub and fiber damage. The Piojera may acquire characteristics enzootic in rural communities and small farmers (30% to 100%)

PARASITIC DISEASES, part 1

A large number of parasitic diseases Affecting camelids. These do not cause While High Mortality and infectious, and Often Go Unnoticed by The Producers, are responsible for Losses to Affect a significant number of Productive functions. For example, gastrointestinal parasites, and blood drain constantede Causing to interfere With The digestive process of food utilization endeficiente lower body RESULTING Development and production of fiber and meat. Moreover, the weakening delanimal Makes more susceptible to this infectious diseases. Ectoparasites, moreover, the production of fiber Affect Both quantity and quality in. To all added This Must Be the loss by confiscation of meat and offal parasitized in the case of as lasarcocistiosis and Hydatid cysts.


It is difficult to make an estimate of economic losses caused by parasitic diseases by the lack of reliable statistics, it is estimated, however, reaching variosmillones dollars a year, which obviously is detrimental to the economy of the producers.

The positive effects of adequate parasite control have been demonstrated by several researchers in Peru. For example, in one of the studies found that alpacas subjected to a program of strategic dosing with ivermectin, outperformed the untreated control group in body weight 6.9 kg and 0.45 kg in fleece weight. On the other hand, the incidence of scabies was ravaged by 1 percent in the treated group compared with 22 percent in the control group (Guerrero et al., 1986). The cost / benefit ratio was favorable for the treated group. Similar resresultados were found in another study in the highlands of Arequipa by Windsor et al. (1992).

1 PARASITIC NEUMOGASTROENTERITIS
The complex nosological is produced by mixed infections of nematodes that parasitize from the gastrointestinal tract and respiratory systems. Some species are specific parasites of camelids, such as: Graphinema aucheniae, Spirulopteragia peruvianus, Nematodirus LaMae, Camellustrongylusmentulatus and Lamanema chavezi.
In contrast, other species are typical of cattle and sheep but can affect camelids, such as those of the genera Ostertagia, Trichostrongylus, Cooperia, Haemoncus, Oesophagostomum and Dyctiocaulus. The prevalence of parasites in alpacas, llamas, vicunas and guanacos is about 70 to 100 percent, with relatively low mortality, about one percent, according to numerous studies conducted, but cause unaalta morbidity with negative consequences productivity of animals.

There are a number of factors that contribute to pest infestation, such as grazing deanimales in highly reduced environments contaminated by feces and parasite eggs without laadecuada rotational grazing, reduction in defense of animals by factors such as calving estresantestales For breastfeeding mothers and weaning in the case of young animals elmantenimiento of manure without proper cleaning, among others. The habit of depositing their droppings camélidosde in a certain place, forming dung is probablementeuna way to prevent the spread of parasites in the pasture, but when haysobrepoblación this apparent advantage may become a disadvantage.

Parasites are found in the digestive tract, either in the abomasum or intestines, structural and functional alterations of the mucosa with ladigestión serious interference and absorption of food that is detrimental to the productive comoson growth breeding and production of fiber. Furthermore Lamanema larvae migrate alhígado cause injury to cirrhotic that are displayed as small abscesses decolor externally whitish, giving the organ a mottled appearance that can lead to confiscation.

The prevention of parasitic infestations should primarily be the oeliminación reduction of predisposing factors mentioned above. Tambiéntratamientos recommended preventive antiparasitic drugs, according to a scheme based on laedad of animals and the time of year

2 sarcocystiosis
This is a disease that has great economic impact and which is currently unfreno for marketing meat CSA. It is produced by a coccidia of the genus Sarcocystis of which there are three species: S. tilopodi (or S. guanicoecanis) in guanacos, S. aucheniae in alpacas, llamas and vicunas, which produce macroscopic cysts in the skeletal muscle, and S. lamacanis, alpacas found that microscopic infective cysts form in a short time in myocardial and skeletal muscle.

Until recently there were doubts about whether it was a single species of Sarcocystis that was responsible for the formation of the two types of cysts and microcysts are nothing but an early stage of development of macrocysts. Using molecular biology techniques to establish hallegado recently and conclusively that it is indeed genetically different dosespecies S. aucheniae and S. lamacanis.

The coccidia causing this disease is indirect cycle, where dogs and carnívorossilvestres are the definitive hosts in which reproduction is effected bowel sexualmientras that asexual reproduction takes place in the capillaries, arterioles and skeletal muscle ycardíaco of CSA, which are the intermediate hosts.

The disease is commonly known by the name of "arrocillo" and "Trichinella" and often laconfunde to cysticercosis. We found a prevalence of 70 to 80 percent of micro omacroquistes in muscles of animals, particularly in over two years edad.En young animals is not typically included macrocysts of microcysts but can only be detected by examination microscope.

The damage caused by the parasite is primarily concerned with the seizure of the carnecon presence of cysts in the muscles, resulting in economic losses. In addition creauna negative image of the camel meat which affects the degree of public acceptance. When ingested by humans, with sarcocistes meat, undercooked produceun box gastroenteritis with nausea, diarrhea, cramps and chills, symptoms should combines toxin present in the cysts, it is deactivated by cooking. Therefore, with sarcocistes Lacarne duly cooked, not a public health problem.

The spread of the disease is favored by the ingestion of meat sarcocistes by dogs that are the inseparable companions of the pastors of alpacas and llamas. They were agreganlos wild carnivores such as foxes, that by eating meat with parasite oocysts diseminándolos millonesde removed by grazing. So how to control esevitando sarcocystiosis contaminated meat consumption by dogs and controlling the action of carnívorossilvestres. Both actions are not easy given the conditions under which develops crianzade camelids. Faced with this situation is currently working on the production of unavacuna that applied to grazing animals to offer effective protection against estaenfermedad. These works, like the typing of sarcocistes are siendorealizados by the Faculty of Veterinary and Animal Science at the Universidad Peruana Cayetano Herediacon FAO support through the project TCP/RLA/2914.

Given that the highest incidence of macrocysts seen in animals over two years, a way to decrease seizures is making out early, ie, allocating the sacrifice young animals unfit for breeding before they become visible losmacroquistes. This implies increasing the proportion of cows and make out of capons to laedad earliest possible within two years. This allows not only to reduce losses due to carcass condemnation but also supply a high quality beef and greater acceptance by consumers.

INFECTIOUS DISEASES, part 2

TUIS DISEASES AND ADULTS

As mentioned above, the attributable mortality rates at relatively low infecciosasson diseases tuis and adults. Are reported, however, a number of variable frequency entidadesnosológicas. These include: a) fever or estrepcocosis alpacas. It is a bacterial disease associated with environmental stress factorswere and management, the causative agent is Streptococcus zooepidemicus

A) The disease is relatively low (5 to 10%) can reach higher numbers in animals subjected to improper handling. The reported mortality is around 2 to 5 percentof those affected.

B) Osteomyelitis: It is an inflammation of the jaw, initially luegoosteolítica proliferative and producing a lump detectable to the naked eye. It usually occurs in the dry season and is associated with injuries from the pastoseco of the winter, providing livelihoods for the proliferation of micro organismosde genera Actinomyces and Fusobacterium. The effect of the disease is so apologetic food intake generally you have to sacrifice.

C) Malignant edema Braxy: Produced by Clostridium septicum and is Characterized by severe edema wound around a dune building. It Has Been Observed to OCCUR sporadically in alpacas can cause death But in animal.

D) Other diseases: include foot-and tetanus. anthrax, otitis, etc.. whose prevalence is lower but occasionally could be of some importance. Although not reported massive outbreaks of FMD in alpacas or llamas, similar to those occurring in other ungulates, animals can carry it whichis a factor limiting exports of live animals. Recently the OIE hadeclarado the southern region, where the largest population of alpacas, comolibre of disease which may facilitate the procedures for export deanimales alive. Have also been reported cases of fungal diseases yalpacas flames, which are treatable and of little relevance.

INFECTIOUS DISEASES, part 1

DISEASES OF CALVES

The cause of death in young alpacas are lasenfermedades infectious. Among them is first enterotoxemia in some years can kill up to 86 percent of baby alpaca. There are no precise data in regard to fire but there are reports that the situation is similar, although the death rate of young of this species appear to be lower than in the case of alpacas.

1. Enterotoxemia

Enterotoxaemia is an acute infectious disease that affects mainly young alpaca within the first month of life. It is the most devastating disease and is produced by the action of enterotoxins from an anaerobic bacterium, Clostridium perfringens type A (formerly called C. welchii) which quickly cause severe damage to vital organs nivelintestinal and ending with the sudden death of animal. The mortality of long críassupera 50 percent in some years.The first observations on this disease dating from the nineteen fifties. In 1955, it was Moro, a professor at the Faculty of Veterinary Medicine of the Universidad Nacional de San Marcos (Peru), who conducted the first studies and the disease called bacillary diarrhea, alobservar the presence of an anaerobic bacillus diarrheal feces of calves killed. The etiologic agent confirmaciónfinal, C. perfringens type A, was made based on the detection dela alpha toxin. Before that, the disease was regarded as an acute form of ladenominada alpaca fever produced by the Strepcoccus zooepidemicus (Ramirez, 19991).

Subsequent studies have given greater insight into the etiology of the disease auncuando many questions remain, which are the subject of estudio.La disease occurs in cycles, as shown by studies of seguimientohechos for over 10 years on commercial farms and at the Center The South American deCamélidos National Raya. In a mortality rate of pups per enterotoxemia of 15 to 20 percent in the first year of a cycle, increasing to 30 to 40 percent in the next year hastaalcanzar a peak of 50 percent or more by the fifth or sixth year. Then bajaabruptamente to 6 or 10 percent the following year. The possible explanation of this variation appears to lie in changes in the mother's immune level. During the cycle of offspring per enterotoxemia altamortalidad, mothers are exposed to high levels of strains of C. perfringenstipo A, producing enterotoxin. Thus mothers receive a Natural devacuna luck against the pathogen, which stimulate the immune response and allow the passage Deuna higher concentration of antibodies to the offspring via colostrum. By decreasing the incidenciade disease and lower mortality, would also decrease the levels deanticuerpos of the mother and the consequent lower concentration in the colostrum, quedesencadenaría a new cycle (Ellis, 1997). The cycles are five to six years and the severity of laenfermedad may be exacerbated by adverse weather conditions and lack of medidashigiénicas which unfortunately are a common occurrence.

Currently there is no vaccine to provide effective protection to offspring against laenterotoxemia. Research is underway and expected to have positive results in a futurocercano.

Is expected to reaching the production of a vaccine against this disease.

The handling of the animals is an important factor in preventing the disease. Overcrowding, lack of cleanliness of calving pens and roosts, lack of protection against bad weather, insufficient or late lascrías colostrum intake and inadequate maternal nutrition in late pregnancy , among others, are factors that create the conditions for the presentation of enterotoxemia. It sidodemostrado in other animal species that insufficient supply of mothers in the últimotercio of gestation, in addition to affecting the level of antibodies from the mother, causes nervous system desarrolloinadecuado breeding which makes not react quickly after accessing delnacimiento colostrum at the time of maximum concentration of inmunoglobulinas.Esto makes it susceptible to enteric and pneumonic processes.

Indeed, Garmendia et al. (1987) found that the failure in the transfer of immunoglobulins from the colostrum, is the leading cause of newborn deaths in alpacas because of their inability to defend itself against infection. They found that encrías to death serum immunoglobulin concentration was significantly lower than those babies who survived.

All this shows how much remains to be investigated in the issue of enterotoxemia in particular and the concomitant causes involved in the death of baby camels, engeneral. What is actually required is a comprehensive approach that includes tantoinfecciosos factors such as environmental and management, in order to establish effective measures based on sound science, leading to reduced losses caused by neonatal lamortalidad

2 Colibacillosis

Under this name are grouped diarrheic and septicemic forms caused by strains of Escherichia coli affecting the offspring. His presentation is estimated at 15 percent. The pups have a formaentérica diarrheic by 3 to 8 days, dehydration, weight loss and enocasiones, death ensues, although some babies recover. The septicemia, occurring mainly during the first week of life, are characterized by muerterepentina.

3 Other diseases

Other infectious diseases that affect the young and that can kill incluyenlas respiratory problems and sepsis. Pneumonia is an acute respiratory condition cuyafrecuencia varies from 2 to 22 percent, depending on the year. Almost always related to some kind of stress due to decreased resistance of the animal and leads to the spread of germs. The bacterial entity involved belongs to the genus Pasteurella. Acute pneumonia is a quick course that involves the lung parenchyma, occurring enneonatos and young animals. The deaths of young for this cause from 2 to 27 percent in both alpacas and llamas in (Ramirez, 1991). Septicemia can have various causes among which one is the onfaloflebitis másfrecuentes is a consequence of disinfection Poor hygiene yfalta navel.

Other pathological conditions are described in offspring but do not have a connotation mortaltales as kerato conjunctivitis, abscesses and necrobacillosis.